HST 150 Module #7
From Bach to Bieber
Music has forever been a vital constituent of human society, dating back to the dawn of civilization. Music played a pivotal role in defining culture, religion, and social customs in the ancient world and throughout the Middle Ages. The intricate harmonies of ancient Greek lyres and the grandiose chants of medieval church choirs have indelibly impacted world history and continue to resonate throughout modern times. Indeed, the history of music is an indispensable part of the human experience.
In days of yore, a medley of music and instruments filled the air, each culture with its signature tune. The Greeks, for one, boasted a repertoire that spanned the gamut of song, symphony, and sway. They knew how to make a joyful noise, especially when it came to spiritual shindigs, and they even scribbled down some of the earliest sheet music in the Western world. Plus, they were brainiacs when it came to the nuts and bolts of melody, with wise thinkers like Pythagoras using numbers to crack the code of sound.
My friends, the ancient Romans weren't just about conquering lands and building impressive structures. No, they also had a passion for music, especially on the battlefield. Imagine it: trumpets, horns wailing, and brass instruments thundering as Roman soldiers charged into battle. Music was more than just entertainment for these warriors; it was a motivator, a communicator of orders, and an essential part of their military culture. But it wasn't all war and no play for the Romans. Oh no, they also knew how to kick back and enjoy some leisurely tunes. The soothing sounds of the lute and lyre were just what the doctor ordered after a long day of pillaging and conquering. Picture this: the Middle Ages, a time of darkness and despair, when music was the holy grail of the Christian Church. Chanting, or plainsong, was the game's name, with Gregorian chant reigning supreme in the 9th and 10th centuries. Decked out in their holy robes, Monks could be heard crooning these melodic tunes, using them as a conduit to reach the Almighty himself. It was a simpler time when the power of music was revered and cherished, and the connection between man and the divine was ever-present.
Amidst the chants of holy hymns, a different kind of melody began to arise during the Middle Ages. A sound born in the courts of noble kings and lords - the sweet strains of secular music. The troubadours of France, oh, how they sang! With instruments like the lute and harp, they serenaded the hearts of many with their ballads of love and chivalry. Their voices echoed the courtly virtues of the time, praising the glory of chivalry and the pure devotion of courtly love. The influence of music on culture and society in the ancient world and the Middle Ages cannot be ignored. However, this influence was only sometimes positive. The ancient Greeks, for instance, utilized music as a tool for reinforcing social hierarchies. This allowed the aristocracy to retain control, with only specific instruments and styles deemed acceptable for their exclusive use. In much the same way, the Church's monopolization of music during the Middle Ages stifled musical innovation and experimentation, curbing the potential for creativity and growth.
Despite its downsides, delving into the tunes of yore is crucial to comprehending the entirety of world history. Music gives us a one-of-a-kind peek into our predecessors' customs and societal norms, allowing us to grasp their thoughts and ideals with greater ease. As we scrutinize different cultures' various melodies, instruments, and conventions, we attain a greater appreciation for the wide-ranging human experience over the years. It's not just about the beat and the melody, my friends. Oh no, the study of music can be a gateway to understanding the evolution of human technology and scientific progress throughout history. Take, for example, the ancient world's development of musical notation - a game-changing advancement in composition and performance. And let's not forget the Middle Ages, where the fearless exploration of new instruments and musical styles set the stage for the revolutionary musical breakthroughs that would follow. Let me tell you, my friends, music was the heart and soul of the ancient world and the Middle Ages, for better or for worse. It's a vital part of our global story that echoes in the tunes we jam to today. Digging into the history of music opens up an entirely new understanding of the culture, society, and tech of the time and the beliefs and values that molded us, humans.
THE RUNDOWN
QUESTIONS
Music has forever been a vital constituent of human society, dating back to the dawn of civilization. Music played a pivotal role in defining culture, religion, and social customs in the ancient world and throughout the Middle Ages. The intricate harmonies of ancient Greek lyres and the grandiose chants of medieval church choirs have indelibly impacted world history and continue to resonate throughout modern times. Indeed, the history of music is an indispensable part of the human experience.
In days of yore, a medley of music and instruments filled the air, each culture with its signature tune. The Greeks, for one, boasted a repertoire that spanned the gamut of song, symphony, and sway. They knew how to make a joyful noise, especially when it came to spiritual shindigs, and they even scribbled down some of the earliest sheet music in the Western world. Plus, they were brainiacs when it came to the nuts and bolts of melody, with wise thinkers like Pythagoras using numbers to crack the code of sound.
My friends, the ancient Romans weren't just about conquering lands and building impressive structures. No, they also had a passion for music, especially on the battlefield. Imagine it: trumpets, horns wailing, and brass instruments thundering as Roman soldiers charged into battle. Music was more than just entertainment for these warriors; it was a motivator, a communicator of orders, and an essential part of their military culture. But it wasn't all war and no play for the Romans. Oh no, they also knew how to kick back and enjoy some leisurely tunes. The soothing sounds of the lute and lyre were just what the doctor ordered after a long day of pillaging and conquering. Picture this: the Middle Ages, a time of darkness and despair, when music was the holy grail of the Christian Church. Chanting, or plainsong, was the game's name, with Gregorian chant reigning supreme in the 9th and 10th centuries. Decked out in their holy robes, Monks could be heard crooning these melodic tunes, using them as a conduit to reach the Almighty himself. It was a simpler time when the power of music was revered and cherished, and the connection between man and the divine was ever-present.
Amidst the chants of holy hymns, a different kind of melody began to arise during the Middle Ages. A sound born in the courts of noble kings and lords - the sweet strains of secular music. The troubadours of France, oh, how they sang! With instruments like the lute and harp, they serenaded the hearts of many with their ballads of love and chivalry. Their voices echoed the courtly virtues of the time, praising the glory of chivalry and the pure devotion of courtly love. The influence of music on culture and society in the ancient world and the Middle Ages cannot be ignored. However, this influence was only sometimes positive. The ancient Greeks, for instance, utilized music as a tool for reinforcing social hierarchies. This allowed the aristocracy to retain control, with only specific instruments and styles deemed acceptable for their exclusive use. In much the same way, the Church's monopolization of music during the Middle Ages stifled musical innovation and experimentation, curbing the potential for creativity and growth.
Despite its downsides, delving into the tunes of yore is crucial to comprehending the entirety of world history. Music gives us a one-of-a-kind peek into our predecessors' customs and societal norms, allowing us to grasp their thoughts and ideals with greater ease. As we scrutinize different cultures' various melodies, instruments, and conventions, we attain a greater appreciation for the wide-ranging human experience over the years. It's not just about the beat and the melody, my friends. Oh no, the study of music can be a gateway to understanding the evolution of human technology and scientific progress throughout history. Take, for example, the ancient world's development of musical notation - a game-changing advancement in composition and performance. And let's not forget the Middle Ages, where the fearless exploration of new instruments and musical styles set the stage for the revolutionary musical breakthroughs that would follow. Let me tell you, my friends, music was the heart and soul of the ancient world and the Middle Ages, for better or for worse. It's a vital part of our global story that echoes in the tunes we jam to today. Digging into the history of music opens up an entirely new understanding of the culture, society, and tech of the time and the beliefs and values that molded us, humans.
THE RUNDOWN
- Music has been an essential part of human society since the dawn of civilization
- It played a crucial role in defining culture, religion, and social customs in the ancient world and throughout the Middle Ages
- The Greeks and Romans had their unique styles of music, and music was a crucial part of Roman military culture
- Chanting was a significant form of music in the Middle Ages, with Gregorian chant reigning supreme in the 9th and 10th centuries
- Secular music also emerged during the Middle Ages, with troubadours serenading the hearts of many with their ballads of love and chivalry
- The influence of music on culture and society was not always positive, as it was used to reinforce social hierarchies and limit musical experimentation and growth
- Understanding the history of music is vital to comprehending the entirety of world history and human progress in technology and scientific development
- Music was the heart and soul of the ancient world and the Middle Ages, and exploring its history provides insight into the beliefs and values that shaped human civilization.
QUESTIONS
- How did music play a role in defining culture, religion, and social customs in the ancient world and throughout the Middle Ages?
- What was the role of music in Roman military culture, and how did it serve as a motivator and communicator of orders?
- How did the Christian Church monopolize music during the Middle Ages, and what was the impact on musical innovation and experimentation?
#7 Historiography is Important and is Never Stagnant.
What does this word mean, which sounds like many other words yet is still challenging to say? By Wikipedia standards, historiography is the study of historians' methods in developing history as an academic discipline; by extension, it is any body of historical work on a subject. The Historiography of a specific topic covers how historians have studied that topic using sources, techniques, and theoretical approaches.
This is a fancy way of saying that history lenses are all different as we value things differently over time. An ancient Greek historian like Herodotus will interpret data and culture much other than someone more contemporary like Howard Zinn. All voices are important, but we need to remember who and why these voices are talking. Think of all the people over time that could have contributed to historical thought that just never learned to read or write? That is a substantial missing demographic we take for granted. Things like the internet have revolutionized how we collect data and record history, a far cry from the archaic days of parchments and scrolls.
Currently, history's battle lines are drawn in the sand with "traditional" and "revisionist" history. As we have seen in the other rules, history can easily be manipulated for political gains. But the term "revisionist" seems silly when you investigate our historiography. We aren't changing history; we are merely reshaping how we view history. I'll bore you later with the tedious speech of confederate statues, which I assume you already have a preconceived notion about.
Historiography is a vital part of the study of history. It goes beyond merely collecting facts to examine the methods, assumptions, and interpretations used in creating historical works. Historiography is far from static; it is a constantly evolving field that changes with discoveries, perspectives, and interpretations. Although there are both benefits and drawbacks to historiography, it continues to be an indispensable part of history study. Historiography is cool because it gives historians the middle finger to old interpretations of history. Like, before the 1960s, the story of Native Americans was all about how they were savages and stuff, thanks to the white dudes writing the history books. But then, the American Indian Movement came along and said, "Hey, let's hear from the actual Native Americans about their history." So, Vine Deloria Jr. and others published books like Custer Died for Your Sins (1969), and God is Red (1973), which told it like it is and paved the way for more inclusive and accurate histories of Native Americans.
Historiography: It's like digging deep into the past to understand better how we got to where we are today. Historians are like culinary explorers, always searching for new ingredients to add to their dishes. And when they find something new, like the Dead Sea Scrolls, it's like discovering a rare spice that takes their dish to the next level. The Scrolls gave us a peek into the beliefs and practices of the Essenes, a Jewish sect and helped us better understand the history of Judaism and early Christianity. That's some deep flavor right there. Historiography is not all sunshine and rainbows. Yeah, it's got some benefits, but there's a dark side to it too. One of the things that can screw things up is bias. Historians they got their ideas and their ways of seeing things, and that can mess with their interpretations. Take the Cold War, for instance. Many American historians were anti-communist, and that bias seeped into their work. The result? Many histories of the Soviet Union and communism were just plain distorted. That anti-communist bias was like a fog. It clouded everything, and the truth was hard to find.
Another curse of historiography is its susceptibility to politics. Many historians toil under the sway of government or political factions and are compelled to craft histories that favor their patrons' agendas. In the Third Reich era, the Fatherland's scholarly scribes were coerced to fashion histories that lauded the Nazi Party and its ideologies. This putrid influence infected the annals of history, tainting it with the stench of deceit and half-truths, ultimately resulting in a distorted view of the atrocities committed by the regime.
In sum, historiography plays a crucial role in the study of history by allowing historians to question and alter previous historical interpretations and thus gain a deeper understanding of the past. Although historiography presents advantages and disadvantages, it remains a vital aspect of historical inquiry today. By remaining mindful of the potential biases and political influences that can taint historiography, historians can strive to produce objective and truthful historical accounts.
THE RUNDOWN
What does this word mean, which sounds like many other words yet is still challenging to say? By Wikipedia standards, historiography is the study of historians' methods in developing history as an academic discipline; by extension, it is any body of historical work on a subject. The Historiography of a specific topic covers how historians have studied that topic using sources, techniques, and theoretical approaches.
This is a fancy way of saying that history lenses are all different as we value things differently over time. An ancient Greek historian like Herodotus will interpret data and culture much other than someone more contemporary like Howard Zinn. All voices are important, but we need to remember who and why these voices are talking. Think of all the people over time that could have contributed to historical thought that just never learned to read or write? That is a substantial missing demographic we take for granted. Things like the internet have revolutionized how we collect data and record history, a far cry from the archaic days of parchments and scrolls.
Currently, history's battle lines are drawn in the sand with "traditional" and "revisionist" history. As we have seen in the other rules, history can easily be manipulated for political gains. But the term "revisionist" seems silly when you investigate our historiography. We aren't changing history; we are merely reshaping how we view history. I'll bore you later with the tedious speech of confederate statues, which I assume you already have a preconceived notion about.
Historiography is a vital part of the study of history. It goes beyond merely collecting facts to examine the methods, assumptions, and interpretations used in creating historical works. Historiography is far from static; it is a constantly evolving field that changes with discoveries, perspectives, and interpretations. Although there are both benefits and drawbacks to historiography, it continues to be an indispensable part of history study. Historiography is cool because it gives historians the middle finger to old interpretations of history. Like, before the 1960s, the story of Native Americans was all about how they were savages and stuff, thanks to the white dudes writing the history books. But then, the American Indian Movement came along and said, "Hey, let's hear from the actual Native Americans about their history." So, Vine Deloria Jr. and others published books like Custer Died for Your Sins (1969), and God is Red (1973), which told it like it is and paved the way for more inclusive and accurate histories of Native Americans.
Historiography: It's like digging deep into the past to understand better how we got to where we are today. Historians are like culinary explorers, always searching for new ingredients to add to their dishes. And when they find something new, like the Dead Sea Scrolls, it's like discovering a rare spice that takes their dish to the next level. The Scrolls gave us a peek into the beliefs and practices of the Essenes, a Jewish sect and helped us better understand the history of Judaism and early Christianity. That's some deep flavor right there. Historiography is not all sunshine and rainbows. Yeah, it's got some benefits, but there's a dark side to it too. One of the things that can screw things up is bias. Historians they got their ideas and their ways of seeing things, and that can mess with their interpretations. Take the Cold War, for instance. Many American historians were anti-communist, and that bias seeped into their work. The result? Many histories of the Soviet Union and communism were just plain distorted. That anti-communist bias was like a fog. It clouded everything, and the truth was hard to find.
Another curse of historiography is its susceptibility to politics. Many historians toil under the sway of government or political factions and are compelled to craft histories that favor their patrons' agendas. In the Third Reich era, the Fatherland's scholarly scribes were coerced to fashion histories that lauded the Nazi Party and its ideologies. This putrid influence infected the annals of history, tainting it with the stench of deceit and half-truths, ultimately resulting in a distorted view of the atrocities committed by the regime.
In sum, historiography plays a crucial role in the study of history by allowing historians to question and alter previous historical interpretations and thus gain a deeper understanding of the past. Although historiography presents advantages and disadvantages, it remains a vital aspect of historical inquiry today. By remaining mindful of the potential biases and political influences that can taint historiography, historians can strive to produce objective and truthful historical accounts.
THE RUNDOWN
- Historiography means studying how historians make history an academic subject. It includes examining how they view a topic using different sources, working methods, and theories.
- It is essential because it's about gathering facts and exploring the methods, assumptions, and interpretations used in creating historical works. It's constantly changing with discoveries, ideas, and viewpoints.
- However, historiography can be influenced by bias and politics, which can lead to inaccurate historical accounts.
- Historiography can reshape how we understand history by allowing historians to challenge earlier interpretations and create a better understanding of the past.
- Examples of historiography in action include Native American historical perspectives and the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, which helped better understand the history of Judaism and early Christianity.
STATE OF THE WORLD
HIGHLIGHTS
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We've got some fine classroom lectures coming your way, all courtesy of the RPTM podcast. These lectures will take you on a wild ride through history, exploring everything from ancient civilizations and epic battles to scientific breakthroughs and artistic revolutions. The podcast will guide you through each lecture with its no-nonsense, straight-talking style, using various sources to give you the lowdown on each topic. You won't find any fancy-pants jargon or convoluted theories here, just plain and straightforward explanations anyone can understand. So sit back and prepare to soak up some knowledge.
LECTURES
LECTURES
- COMING SOON
READING
This class utilizes the following textbook:
Bentley, Jerry. Traditions & Encounter Volume 1 from Beginning to 1500, 7th ed.: McGraw Hill, 2021 .
Jerry H. Bentley was a historian and academic who specialized in world history, with a focus on cultural and economic exchange, comparative history, and the study of empires. He was a professor at the University of Hawaii and served as the President of the American Historical Association. Bentley wrote several books on world history and globalization, including "Old World Encounters" and he made significant contributions to the field. He passed away in 2014.
- Bentley, Chapter 13: The Resurgence of Empire in
- Bentley, Chapter 14: The Expansive Realm of Islam
This class utilizes the following textbook:
Bentley, Jerry. Traditions & Encounter Volume 1 from Beginning to 1500, 7th ed.: McGraw Hill, 2021 .
Jerry H. Bentley was a historian and academic who specialized in world history, with a focus on cultural and economic exchange, comparative history, and the study of empires. He was a professor at the University of Hawaii and served as the President of the American Historical Association. Bentley wrote several books on world history and globalization, including "Old World Encounters" and he made significant contributions to the field. He passed away in 2014.
Howard Zinn was a historian, writer, and political activist known for his critical analysis of American history. He is particularly well-known for his counter-narrative to traditional American history accounts and highlights marginalized groups' experiences and perspectives. Zinn's work is often associated with social history and is known for his Marxist and socialist views. Larry Schweikart is also a historian, but his work and perspective are often considered more conservative. Schweikart's work is often associated with military history, and he is known for his support of free-market economics and limited government. Overall, Zinn and Schweikart have different perspectives on various historical issues and events and may interpret historical events and phenomena differently. Occasionally, we will also look at Thaddeus Russell, a historian, author, and academic. Russell has written extensively on the history of social and cultural change, and his work focuses on how marginalized and oppressed groups have challenged and transformed mainstream culture. Russell is known for his unconventional and controversial ideas, and his work has been praised for its originality and provocative nature.
My classes utilize both Howard Zinn's A People's History of the United States and Larry Schweikart's Patriot's History of the United States, mostly in excerpts posted to the modules. You can access the full text of People's History or Patriot's History by clicking on the links.
My classes utilize both Howard Zinn's A People's History of the United States and Larry Schweikart's Patriot's History of the United States, mostly in excerpts posted to the modules. You can access the full text of People's History or Patriot's History by clicking on the links.
Zinn, A People's History of the United States
"...The most important thing about dress in the cultural change of the (1960s) was the greater informality. For women it was a continuation of the historic feminist movement's insistence on discarding of 'feminine,' hampering clothes. Many women stopped wearing bras. The restrictive 'girdle'-almost a uniform of the forties and fifties-became rare. Young men and women dressed more nearly alike, in jeans, in discarded army uniforms. Men stopped wearing neckties, women of all ages wore pants more often-unspoken homage to Amelia Bloomer.
There was a new popular music of protest. Pete Seeger had been singing protest songs since the forties, but now he came into his own, his audiences much larger. Bob Dylan and Joan Baez, singing not only protest songs, but songs reflecting the new abandon, the new culture,
became popular idols. A middle-aged woman on the West Coast, Malvina Reynolds, wrote and sang songs that fit her socialist thinking and her libertarian spirit, as well as her critique of the modern commercial culture. Everybody now, she sang, lived in 'little boxes' and they 'all came out just the same.'
Bob Dylan was a phenomenon unto himself: powerful songs of protest, persona] songs of freedom and self-expression. In an angry song, 'Masters of War,' he hopes that one day they will the and he will follow their casket "in the pale afternoon.' 'A Hard Rain's A-Gonna Fall' recounts the terrible stories of the last decades, of starvation and war, and tears, and dead ponies, and poisoned waters, and damp, dirty prisons-'It's a hard rain's a-gonna fall.' Dylan sang a bitter antiwar song, 'With God on Our Side,' and one about the killer of the black activist Medgar Evers, 'Only a Pawn in Their Game.' He offered a challenge to the old, hope to the new, for 'The Times They Are A-Changin'..."
"...The most important thing about dress in the cultural change of the (1960s) was the greater informality. For women it was a continuation of the historic feminist movement's insistence on discarding of 'feminine,' hampering clothes. Many women stopped wearing bras. The restrictive 'girdle'-almost a uniform of the forties and fifties-became rare. Young men and women dressed more nearly alike, in jeans, in discarded army uniforms. Men stopped wearing neckties, women of all ages wore pants more often-unspoken homage to Amelia Bloomer.
There was a new popular music of protest. Pete Seeger had been singing protest songs since the forties, but now he came into his own, his audiences much larger. Bob Dylan and Joan Baez, singing not only protest songs, but songs reflecting the new abandon, the new culture,
became popular idols. A middle-aged woman on the West Coast, Malvina Reynolds, wrote and sang songs that fit her socialist thinking and her libertarian spirit, as well as her critique of the modern commercial culture. Everybody now, she sang, lived in 'little boxes' and they 'all came out just the same.'
Bob Dylan was a phenomenon unto himself: powerful songs of protest, persona] songs of freedom and self-expression. In an angry song, 'Masters of War,' he hopes that one day they will the and he will follow their casket "in the pale afternoon.' 'A Hard Rain's A-Gonna Fall' recounts the terrible stories of the last decades, of starvation and war, and tears, and dead ponies, and poisoned waters, and damp, dirty prisons-'It's a hard rain's a-gonna fall.' Dylan sang a bitter antiwar song, 'With God on Our Side,' and one about the killer of the black activist Medgar Evers, 'Only a Pawn in Their Game.' He offered a challenge to the old, hope to the new, for 'The Times They Are A-Changin'..."
Larry Schweikart, A Patriot's History of the United States
"...Colonial art, architecture, drama, and music also reflected American practicality and democracy spawned in a frontier environment. Artists found their only market for paintings in portraiture and, later, patriot art. Talented painters like John Singleton Copley and Benjamin West made their living painting the likenesses of colonial merchants, planters, and their families; eventually both sailed for Europe to pursue purer artistic endeavors. American architecture never soared to magnificence, though a few public buildings, colleges, churches, and private homes reflected an aesthetic influenced by classical motifs and Georgian styles. Drama, too, struggled. Puritan Massachusetts prohibited theater shows (the “Devil’s Workshop”), whereas thespians in Philadelphia, Williamsburg, and Charleston performed amateurish productions of Shakespeare and contemporary English dramas. Not until Royall Tyler tapped the patriot theme (and the comic potential of the Yankee archetype) in his 1789 production of The Contrast would American playwrights finally discover their niche, somewhere between high and low art.
In eighteenth century Charleston, Boston, and Philadelphia, the upper classes could occasionally hear Bach and Mozart performed by professional orchestras. Most musical endeavor, however, was applied to religion, where church hymns were sung a cappella and, occasionally, to the accompaniment of a church organ. Americans customized and syncopated hymns, greatly aggravating pious English churchmen. Reflecting the most predominant musical influence in colonial America, the folk idiom of Anglo, Celtic, and African emigrants, American music already had coalesced into a base upon which new genres of church and secular music—gospel, field songs, and white folk ballads—would ultimately emerge..."
"...Colonial art, architecture, drama, and music also reflected American practicality and democracy spawned in a frontier environment. Artists found their only market for paintings in portraiture and, later, patriot art. Talented painters like John Singleton Copley and Benjamin West made their living painting the likenesses of colonial merchants, planters, and their families; eventually both sailed for Europe to pursue purer artistic endeavors. American architecture never soared to magnificence, though a few public buildings, colleges, churches, and private homes reflected an aesthetic influenced by classical motifs and Georgian styles. Drama, too, struggled. Puritan Massachusetts prohibited theater shows (the “Devil’s Workshop”), whereas thespians in Philadelphia, Williamsburg, and Charleston performed amateurish productions of Shakespeare and contemporary English dramas. Not until Royall Tyler tapped the patriot theme (and the comic potential of the Yankee archetype) in his 1789 production of The Contrast would American playwrights finally discover their niche, somewhere between high and low art.
In eighteenth century Charleston, Boston, and Philadelphia, the upper classes could occasionally hear Bach and Mozart performed by professional orchestras. Most musical endeavor, however, was applied to religion, where church hymns were sung a cappella and, occasionally, to the accompaniment of a church organ. Americans customized and syncopated hymns, greatly aggravating pious English churchmen. Reflecting the most predominant musical influence in colonial America, the folk idiom of Anglo, Celtic, and African emigrants, American music already had coalesced into a base upon which new genres of church and secular music—gospel, field songs, and white folk ballads—would ultimately emerge..."
Thaddeus Russell, A Renegade History of the United States
"... After World War II, Soviet soldiers brought the virus home from the western front. It soon infected large portions of the Soviet population, then spread to other Eastern Bloc countries. Within a few years, the Communist Party leadership feared it would destroy the socialist fatherland from within. But it was not a biological disease that threatened Communism. Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin and his commissars called it an “amoral infection” in the minds of Soviet youth. It was 'American primitivism,' 'capitalist cultural imperialism,' and 'bourgeois cosmopolitanism.' But it was really American renegade culture.
In 1946, soon after Stalin’s chief aide Andrei Zhdanov warned that jazz would 'poison the consciousness of the masses,' the Central Committee of the Communist Party ordered all state orchestras to stop playing the music. Also banned were saxophones, wah-wah trumpet mutes, the plucking of bass strings, the deliberate lowering of tones to create 'blue notes,' and the playing of drums with too much rhythm. Brigades of music patrols monitored theaters and dance halls to ensure that nothing jazzy was being played. Couples caught dancing anything other than the waltz, the polka, or Russian folk dances were subject to arrest. Members of jazz bands were rounded up and sent to Siberian prisons or exiled to remote cities, where they were supposed to undergo 'rehabilitation.'
Soviet authorities were right to fear jazz, but they could not stop it. Bootleg recordings were sold by the millions on the black market. Stiliagi, or 'style hunters,' appeared on the streets of all the major cities in the Soviet bloc, wearing zoot suits and ducktails if they were male or tight dresses—'stretched tightly over their figures to the point of indecency,' according to one state-run Soviet newspaper—and bouffant hairdos if they were female. They refused to work and loved to drink, 'hang out,' read American comic books, and listen to African American music. With little access to American-made products, the stiliagi were forced to re-create them on their own. To make flashy, multicolored ties, they literally painted over their drab, state-issued ties, or affixed to them American cigarette packages. Because there were no hairstylists behind the Iron Curtain who could or would give them the look of their American idols, the style hunters used heated metal rods on one another’s hair. So, many sported not only fashionable ducktails but also burns on their necks. Instead of American chewing gum, many chewed paraffin wax. They smuggled as many of the real sounds of renegade America as they could but were forced to copy them in an ingenious way. A jazz-loving Soviet medical student discovered that he could inscribe sound grooves on the surface of X-ray plates, and invented a machine that allowed him to produce low-quality but sufficient copies of music recordings. From there, the stiliagi used the technique to take over the black market in American music. Swing and boogie-woogie were early favorites, then bebop and rhythm and blues.
Every nation of the Eastern Bloc had its own stiliagi. In Poland, they were the bikiniarze. In Hungary, they were the jampec. And in Czechoslovakia, pásek overran the streets. When the police in these countries didn’t arrest the renegades, they gave them impromptu street haircuts or slashed their clothes..."
"... After World War II, Soviet soldiers brought the virus home from the western front. It soon infected large portions of the Soviet population, then spread to other Eastern Bloc countries. Within a few years, the Communist Party leadership feared it would destroy the socialist fatherland from within. But it was not a biological disease that threatened Communism. Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin and his commissars called it an “amoral infection” in the minds of Soviet youth. It was 'American primitivism,' 'capitalist cultural imperialism,' and 'bourgeois cosmopolitanism.' But it was really American renegade culture.
In 1946, soon after Stalin’s chief aide Andrei Zhdanov warned that jazz would 'poison the consciousness of the masses,' the Central Committee of the Communist Party ordered all state orchestras to stop playing the music. Also banned were saxophones, wah-wah trumpet mutes, the plucking of bass strings, the deliberate lowering of tones to create 'blue notes,' and the playing of drums with too much rhythm. Brigades of music patrols monitored theaters and dance halls to ensure that nothing jazzy was being played. Couples caught dancing anything other than the waltz, the polka, or Russian folk dances were subject to arrest. Members of jazz bands were rounded up and sent to Siberian prisons or exiled to remote cities, where they were supposed to undergo 'rehabilitation.'
Soviet authorities were right to fear jazz, but they could not stop it. Bootleg recordings were sold by the millions on the black market. Stiliagi, or 'style hunters,' appeared on the streets of all the major cities in the Soviet bloc, wearing zoot suits and ducktails if they were male or tight dresses—'stretched tightly over their figures to the point of indecency,' according to one state-run Soviet newspaper—and bouffant hairdos if they were female. They refused to work and loved to drink, 'hang out,' read American comic books, and listen to African American music. With little access to American-made products, the stiliagi were forced to re-create them on their own. To make flashy, multicolored ties, they literally painted over their drab, state-issued ties, or affixed to them American cigarette packages. Because there were no hairstylists behind the Iron Curtain who could or would give them the look of their American idols, the style hunters used heated metal rods on one another’s hair. So, many sported not only fashionable ducktails but also burns on their necks. Instead of American chewing gum, many chewed paraffin wax. They smuggled as many of the real sounds of renegade America as they could but were forced to copy them in an ingenious way. A jazz-loving Soviet medical student discovered that he could inscribe sound grooves on the surface of X-ray plates, and invented a machine that allowed him to produce low-quality but sufficient copies of music recordings. From there, the stiliagi used the technique to take over the black market in American music. Swing and boogie-woogie were early favorites, then bebop and rhythm and blues.
Every nation of the Eastern Bloc had its own stiliagi. In Poland, they were the bikiniarze. In Hungary, they were the jampec. And in Czechoslovakia, pásek overran the streets. When the police in these countries didn’t arrest the renegades, they gave them impromptu street haircuts or slashed their clothes..."
What Does Professor Lancaster Think?
The cultural evolution in America and the Eastern Bloc has been molded by a myriad of factors, encompassing political and social influences and historical events. Let's delve into the cultural advancements in both regions during different epochs, emphasizing their constructive and detrimental facets and relevance in present-day society.
Once upon a time in colonial America, art, architecture, drama, and music were all influenced by the practicality and democracy born from the wild frontier environment. The most popular musical genre was folk music, which embodied the everyday lives of ordinary folks. Through this melodious medium, stories were told, cultural traditions were passed down, and social and political views were expressed. It was a democratic art form that allowed every Tom, Dick, and Harriet to have their say and be heard. Folks from all walks of life were empowered to express themselves and contribute to cultural evolution. This cultural revolution positively impacted society, promoting democracy through the power of art and music.
The Soviet government saw jazz as a tool of the Western bourgeoisie, promoting decadence and individualism. During the dark days of the Soviet era, renegade American culture, especially the sultry sounds of jazz music, was deemed a threat to communism and was banned. But even with this ban, jazz continued to thrive in the black market. And its influence on Soviet culture was undeniable. The rise of jazz in the Soviet Union had both positive and negative aspects. On the one hand, it showcased the indomitable human spirit. It proved that no matter how hard the powers that be tried to suppress it, creativity and self-expression could never be silenced. On the other hand, it also highlighted the insidious ways political ideologies could be used to stifle individuals' free-thinking and intellectual freedom.
As a lover of culture and the human spirit, it's a thought that gives me chills. Sipping on my vodka, I can't help but wonder: what other creative endeavors were suppressed during those bleak Soviet days? What brilliant minds were silenced, and what great works were left undiscovered? The tumultuous 1960s rocked the very foundations of American culture, ushering in an era of unprecedented change and upheaval. Yore's stiff and formal clothing was summarily jettisoned, replaced by a laissez-faire attitude that reflected the new sense of freedom and abandonment that characterized the era. The old ways of doing things were cast aside like yesterday's trash as the young and the restless sought to forge a new path.
In this climate of the cultural revolution, folk musicians like Bob Dylan and Joan Baez emerged as towering figures, their plaintive melodies and protest songs striking a chord with a generation hungry for change. Their voices were the clarion call of the counterculture movement, embodying the restless spirit of a people clamoring for a better world. But with every revolution comes a cost, and the 1960s were no exception. While the rejection of traditional norms and values allowed for the expression of new ideas and perspectives, it also deepened the divide between the generations. The old guard clung stubbornly to their ways while the young sought to blaze their trail, heedless of the consequences. It was a time of great promise and peril when anything seemed possible, but nothing was guaranteed.
The examination of cultural evolution in America and the Eastern Bloc remains a vigorous pursuit to this very hour, for it unveils the intricate intermingling of politics, society, and culture. It grants us a glimpse into the reflection of historical events and societal metamorphoses within cultural developments. Furthermore, it fosters the recognition of the variety of human encounters and the weight of artistic manifestation in our existence. The way things shook out, cultural evolution in America and the Eastern Bloc got shaped by all sorts of things - politics, society, and history being chief among them. There were pluses and minuses to the results, and it's vital to examine them to truly grasp the intricacies of being human and how art and culture figure into the mix.
THE RUNDOWN
QUESTIONS
The cultural evolution in America and the Eastern Bloc has been molded by a myriad of factors, encompassing political and social influences and historical events. Let's delve into the cultural advancements in both regions during different epochs, emphasizing their constructive and detrimental facets and relevance in present-day society.
Once upon a time in colonial America, art, architecture, drama, and music were all influenced by the practicality and democracy born from the wild frontier environment. The most popular musical genre was folk music, which embodied the everyday lives of ordinary folks. Through this melodious medium, stories were told, cultural traditions were passed down, and social and political views were expressed. It was a democratic art form that allowed every Tom, Dick, and Harriet to have their say and be heard. Folks from all walks of life were empowered to express themselves and contribute to cultural evolution. This cultural revolution positively impacted society, promoting democracy through the power of art and music.
The Soviet government saw jazz as a tool of the Western bourgeoisie, promoting decadence and individualism. During the dark days of the Soviet era, renegade American culture, especially the sultry sounds of jazz music, was deemed a threat to communism and was banned. But even with this ban, jazz continued to thrive in the black market. And its influence on Soviet culture was undeniable. The rise of jazz in the Soviet Union had both positive and negative aspects. On the one hand, it showcased the indomitable human spirit. It proved that no matter how hard the powers that be tried to suppress it, creativity and self-expression could never be silenced. On the other hand, it also highlighted the insidious ways political ideologies could be used to stifle individuals' free-thinking and intellectual freedom.
As a lover of culture and the human spirit, it's a thought that gives me chills. Sipping on my vodka, I can't help but wonder: what other creative endeavors were suppressed during those bleak Soviet days? What brilliant minds were silenced, and what great works were left undiscovered? The tumultuous 1960s rocked the very foundations of American culture, ushering in an era of unprecedented change and upheaval. Yore's stiff and formal clothing was summarily jettisoned, replaced by a laissez-faire attitude that reflected the new sense of freedom and abandonment that characterized the era. The old ways of doing things were cast aside like yesterday's trash as the young and the restless sought to forge a new path.
In this climate of the cultural revolution, folk musicians like Bob Dylan and Joan Baez emerged as towering figures, their plaintive melodies and protest songs striking a chord with a generation hungry for change. Their voices were the clarion call of the counterculture movement, embodying the restless spirit of a people clamoring for a better world. But with every revolution comes a cost, and the 1960s were no exception. While the rejection of traditional norms and values allowed for the expression of new ideas and perspectives, it also deepened the divide between the generations. The old guard clung stubbornly to their ways while the young sought to blaze their trail, heedless of the consequences. It was a time of great promise and peril when anything seemed possible, but nothing was guaranteed.
The examination of cultural evolution in America and the Eastern Bloc remains a vigorous pursuit to this very hour, for it unveils the intricate intermingling of politics, society, and culture. It grants us a glimpse into the reflection of historical events and societal metamorphoses within cultural developments. Furthermore, it fosters the recognition of the variety of human encounters and the weight of artistic manifestation in our existence. The way things shook out, cultural evolution in America and the Eastern Bloc got shaped by all sorts of things - politics, society, and history being chief among them. There were pluses and minuses to the results, and it's vital to examine them to truly grasp the intricacies of being human and how art and culture figure into the mix.
THE RUNDOWN
- Cultural evolution in America and the Eastern Bloc influenced by political, social, and historical factors.
- In colonial America, folk music was a democratic art form that allowed for self-expression and contributed to cultural evolution, promoting democracy.
- Soviet government saw jazz as a threat to communism and banned it, but it continued to thrive in the black market, showcasing the indomitable human spirit while also highlighting the ways political ideologies could stifle free-thinking and intellectual freedom.
- The 1960s in America saw a cultural revolution with the rejection of traditional norms and values and the emergence of folk musicians like Bob Dylan and Joan Baez as towering figures in the counterculture movement, but it also deepened the divide between generations.
- Examination of cultural evolution in both regions remains important in understanding the intricate intermingling of politics, society, and culture and the weight of artistic manifestation in our existence.
QUESTIONS
- How did the democratic and practical nature of colonial America influence the development of folk music and its impact on society?
- Why did the Soviet government see jazz music as a threat to communism and how did its ban ultimately impact Soviet culture?
- What were some of the positive and negative aspects of the counterculture movement in the 1960s, and how did it deepen the generational divide?
Musicians are everywhere in the collective life of ancient societies, playing during rites or major events related to power (detail of a fresco in a Theban tomb, 1425 BCE).
THE RUNDOWN
The tale of music's origins unfolds in the first chapter of Howard Goodall's "Story of Music." Goodall delves deep into the ancient past, where our ancestors first tapped into the primal urge to create rhythm and melody. With his keen eye, he uncovers the threads that wove the earliest tunes and how these harmonies evolved into the complex melodies of the present day. In his quest for the roots of music, Goodall takes us through the dusty streets of ancient Mesopotamia, where the people knew music as a means to connect with the divine. He tells of the Greeks, whose intricate hymns rang out in majestic amphitheaters, and the Egyptians, who used music to enchant the living and the dead.
As the story progresses, Goodall highlights the significance of the development of music notation, a breakthrough that allowed accurate recording of music, thus preserving it for posterity. With the same fervor as a warrior charging into battle, Goodall marches through the Middle Ages, where he champions the power of Gregorian chant. He reveals the roots of polyphonic music and how it blossomed in the Renaissance, paving the way for today's great music.
In sum, Goodall paints a vivid picture of the birth of music, tracing its rich tapestry of history and leaving us with an appreciation for the art form that has enraptured human beings for ages.
The tale of music's origins unfolds in the first chapter of Howard Goodall's "Story of Music." Goodall delves deep into the ancient past, where our ancestors first tapped into the primal urge to create rhythm and melody. With his keen eye, he uncovers the threads that wove the earliest tunes and how these harmonies evolved into the complex melodies of the present day. In his quest for the roots of music, Goodall takes us through the dusty streets of ancient Mesopotamia, where the people knew music as a means to connect with the divine. He tells of the Greeks, whose intricate hymns rang out in majestic amphitheaters, and the Egyptians, who used music to enchant the living and the dead.
As the story progresses, Goodall highlights the significance of the development of music notation, a breakthrough that allowed accurate recording of music, thus preserving it for posterity. With the same fervor as a warrior charging into battle, Goodall marches through the Middle Ages, where he champions the power of Gregorian chant. He reveals the roots of polyphonic music and how it blossomed in the Renaissance, paving the way for today's great music.
In sum, Goodall paints a vivid picture of the birth of music, tracing its rich tapestry of history and leaving us with an appreciation for the art form that has enraptured human beings for ages.
KEY TERMS
- c. 2600 BCE: The invention of the first known musical instrument, the Sumerian lyre.
- c. 1500 BCE: The development of the ancient Greek music theory by Pythagoras.
- c. 1000 BCE: The composition of the Hebrew Psalms, which are the oldest known examples of written music.
- c. 500 BCE: The establishment of the Academy of Music in China, which focused on the study of traditional Chinese music.
- c. 300 BCE: The development of the Indian classical music tradition, with the creation of the Natya Shastra, a Sanskrit text on music and dance.
- 43 BCE: The introduction of Roman music to Britain, following the Roman invasion.
- c. 500 CE: The development of the Byzantine music tradition in the Eastern Roman Empire, which would go on to influence Western classical music.
- 590 CE: Pope Gregory the Great standardizes and codifies the chants used in Christian liturgy, resulting in the Gregorian Chant.
- c. 700 CE: The creation of the first Islamic music theory, based on the Arabic maqam system.
- c. 800 CE: The development of the European Gregorian chant, which became the dominant form of liturgical music in the medieval period.
- 800 CE: Charlemagne is crowned Holy Roman Emperor and begins to support and promote music in the courts of his empire.
- 900 CE: Troubadours begin to emerge in Southern France, composing and performing secular songs and poetry.
- c. 1000 CE: The invention of the organ, which became an important instrument in European church music.
- 1000 CE: The development of polyphonic music, where multiple melodies are sung or played simultaneously, begins to emerge in Western Europe.
- 1098 CE: The founding of the Abbey of Cluny in France, which becomes one of the most important centers of religious music in the Middle Ages.
- 1135 CE: Hildegard von Bingen, a composer, writer, and mystic, is born and goes on to write some of the most important music of the period.
- 1170 CE: The University of Paris is founded, becoming an important center for musical education and training.
- 1200 CE: The development of the motet, a type of vocal music with multiple texts and melodies, becomes popular in France and Italy.
- 1300 CE: The development of Ars Nova, a new style of music that allows for greater complexity and rhythmic flexibility, emerges in France.
- 1400 CE: The development of the Renaissance style of music, which emphasizes individual expression, harmony, and secular subjects, begins to emerge in Italy.
DISCLAIMER: Welcome scholars to the wild and wacky world of history class. This isn't your granddaddy's boring ol' lecture, baby. We will take a trip through time, which will be one wild ride. I know some of you are in a brick-and-mortar setting, while others are in the vast digital wasteland. But fear not; we're all in this together. Online students might miss out on some in-person interaction, but you can still join in on the fun. This little shindig aims to get you all engaged with the course material and understand how past societies have shaped the world we know today. We'll talk about revolutions, wars, and other crazy stuff. So get ready, kids, because it's going to be one heck of a trip. And for all, you online students out there, don't be shy. Please share your thoughts and ideas with the rest of us. The Professor will do his best to give everyone an equal opportunity to learn, so don't hold back. So, let's do this thing!
Activity: "Discovering Ancient Music through Artifacts"
Instructions:
- Begin the activity by giving a brief lecture on the history of ancient music, covering the major cultural and societal developments that influenced the evolution of music during that time. This lecture should provide context for the artifacts that will be examined later.
- Next, distribute the collection of ancient artifacts related to music to the students. Ask them to examine each artifact closely and take notes on its features, materials, and any other notable characteristics.
- After the students have had sufficient time to examine the artifacts, ask them to form small groups of 3-4 people each. In these groups, they should discuss their observations about the artifacts and their possible significance in the context of the lecture on ancient music.
- Each group should then choose one artifact to present to the class. They should give a brief presentation (2-3 minutes) on their chosen artifact, highlighting its most important features and their interpretation of its significance in the history of ancient music.
- After all the groups have presented, have a class discussion on the different interpretations of the artifacts and what they reveal about the evolution of ancient music. Ask students to reflect on what they have learned about the role of music in different cultures and societies during that time.
Activity: "Musical Journey through Medieval Europe"
Instructions:
- Divide the class into small groups (4-5 students).
- Assign each group a specific region or country in Europe (e.g., France, Italy, Germany, England, Spain, etc.).
- Provide each group with a map of Europe during the Middle Ages and ask them to mark the region they are assigned to.
- Give each group a set of music samples (2-3 pieces) from their assigned region and period. Ask them to listen to the music and take notes on the following:
- What musical instruments are used?
- What is the style or genre of the music?
- What are the lyrics or subject matter of the songs?
- What historical events or cultural influences may have shaped the music?
- After listening to the music, ask each group to present their findings to the class. They can use the map to show the geographical location of their region and share their notes on the music samples.
- As a class, discuss the similarities and differences between the music styles from different regions. How do they reflect the cultural and historical context of each region?
- Wrap up the activity by asking students to write a short reflection on what they learned about medieval music from this activity. What surprised them the most? What questions do they still have?
SUMMARY
- Music has been a vital part of human society since ancient times
- Greek music was diverse and innovative, with Pythagoras using numbers to understand sound
- Roman soldiers used music as a motivator and communicator in battle, but also enjoyed leisurely tunes
- The Middle Ages were a time when music was an essential part of the Christian Church, but secular music also emerged in noble courts
- Music has had both positive and negative impacts on society, reinforcing social hierarchies and limiting creativity and experimentation
- Understanding the history of music allows us to better comprehend the evolution of human technology and scientific progress
- Historiography is the study of how historians develop history as an academic discipline and is always evolving
- Different historians interpret history through different lenses, and the missing demographic of people who couldn't read or write is significant
- The battle lines of "traditional" and "revisionist" history reflect the potential for history to be manipulated for political gain.
ASSIGNMENTS
Remember all assignments, tests and quizzes must be submitted official via BLACKBOARD
- Forum Discussion #8
Remember all assignments, tests and quizzes must be submitted official via BLACKBOARD
Forum Discussion #8
PianoTV is a YouTube channel for anyone who loves tickling the ivories. Allysia runs it, a gal who knows her stuff - she's a classically trained pianist and a music teacher who's got the chops to teach piano to anyone who wants to learn. Watch this video and answer the following question:
PianoTV is a YouTube channel for anyone who loves tickling the ivories. Allysia runs it, a gal who knows her stuff - she's a classically trained pianist and a music teacher who's got the chops to teach piano to anyone who wants to learn. Watch this video and answer the following question:
What were the key genres of music in the Middle Ages and how did the development of music notation and polyphony shape these genres?
Need help? Remember the Discussion Board Rubric.
THE RUNDOWN
Ye shall not want for enlightenment on the music of yore! Behold, in this two-part series of Piano TV, the host doth expound upon the melodies of the Middle Ages. The first part is a solemn affair devoted to sacred vocal music, while the second is a lively romp discussing secular and instrumental tunes. Know ye that the Middle Ages be that epoch betwixt classical antiquity and the Renaissance, and the Roman Catholic Church held much sway over the harmonious arts. 'Twas during this era that music notation did flower, and while music was once but a single voice, polyphony did eventually rear its head. The strains of that age were modal, and 'twas in Rome where Gregorian chant, a plain chant, didst first arise. As thou watch this video, take heed of the curious facts shared about the Middle Ages. 'Tis sure to enlighten and entertain!
WORK CITED
Hey, welcome to the work cited section! Here's where you'll find all the heavy hitters that inspired the content you've just consumed. Some might think citations are as dull as unbuttered toast, but nothing gets my intellectual juices flowing like a good reference list. Don't get me wrong, just because we've cited a source; doesn't mean we're always going to see eye-to-eye. But that's the beauty of it - it's up to you to chew on the material and come to conclusions. Listen, we've gone to great lengths to ensure these citations are accurate, but let's face it, we're all human. So, give us a holler if you notice any mistakes or suggest more sources. We're always looking to up our game. Ultimately, it's all about pursuing knowledge and truth, my friends.
LEGAL MUMBO JUMBO
Need help? Remember the Discussion Board Rubric.
THE RUNDOWN
Ye shall not want for enlightenment on the music of yore! Behold, in this two-part series of Piano TV, the host doth expound upon the melodies of the Middle Ages. The first part is a solemn affair devoted to sacred vocal music, while the second is a lively romp discussing secular and instrumental tunes. Know ye that the Middle Ages be that epoch betwixt classical antiquity and the Renaissance, and the Roman Catholic Church held much sway over the harmonious arts. 'Twas during this era that music notation did flower, and while music was once but a single voice, polyphony did eventually rear its head. The strains of that age were modal, and 'twas in Rome where Gregorian chant, a plain chant, didst first arise. As thou watch this video, take heed of the curious facts shared about the Middle Ages. 'Tis sure to enlighten and entertain!
WORK CITED
Hey, welcome to the work cited section! Here's where you'll find all the heavy hitters that inspired the content you've just consumed. Some might think citations are as dull as unbuttered toast, but nothing gets my intellectual juices flowing like a good reference list. Don't get me wrong, just because we've cited a source; doesn't mean we're always going to see eye-to-eye. But that's the beauty of it - it's up to you to chew on the material and come to conclusions. Listen, we've gone to great lengths to ensure these citations are accurate, but let's face it, we're all human. So, give us a holler if you notice any mistakes or suggest more sources. We're always looking to up our game. Ultimately, it's all about pursuing knowledge and truth, my friends.
- Deloria Jr., Vine. 1969. Custer Died for Your Sins: An Indian Manifesto. New York: Macmillan.
- Deloria Jr., Vine. 1994. God is Red: A Native View of Religion. Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing.
- Harrington, Joel. “The History of Music: What Is It Good for?” Forbes, Forbes Magazine, 19 Mar. 2021, https://www.forbes.com/sites/joelharrington/2021/03/19/the-history-of-music-what-is-it-good-for/?sh=56d61a174f1a.
- Kaufman, Stephen. 2005. "Cold War Historiography: New Evidence Behind Traditional Typographies." International Social Science Review 80, no. 3: 63-83.
- Nasrallah, Laura. “Greek Music History.” Ancient History Encyclopedia, Ancient History Encyclopedia, 22 Jun. 2020, https://www.ancient.eu/Greek_Music/.
- PBS. “The Roman Empire in the First Century. The Roman Empire: In the First Century. The Empire in the First Century.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service, 17 Mar. 2006, https://www.pbs.org/empires/romans/empire/music.html.
- "The Dead Sea Scrolls." The Israel Museum. Accessed May 21, 2021. https://www.imj.org.il/en/exhibitions/dead-sea-scrolls.
- "The Development of American Culture in the Colonial Period" by Lawrence A. Cremin. History Teacher, Vol. 1, No. 2 (1968), pp. 27-40.
- "The Folk Music Revival: The 1960s and Beyond" by David A. Carson. The Journal of American Culture, Vol. 23, No. 1 (2000), pp. 91-101.
- "Cultural Developments in the Soviet Union" by Daniel A. Metraux. Journal of Soviet and Post-Soviet Politics and Society, Vol. 1, No. 1 (2015), pp. 45-65.
- “The History of Music in the Middle Ages.” Music in the Middle Ages - Musicology - Oxford Bibliographies, Oxford Bibliographies, 26 Mar. 2020, https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199757824/obo-9780199757824-0019.xml.
- Turpin, Adrian. “What We Can Learn from the Oldest Music in the World.” BBC Future, BBC, 16 Jan. 2020, https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200115-what-we-can-learn-from-the-oldest-music-in-the-world.
LEGAL MUMBO JUMBO
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